Bridging Academic and Career Competencies Essay

The university learning goals are essential skills that hiring managers look for when reviewing applications. Knowing how to incorporate the learning goals into your career competencies can help you in the application and career-search process. Fill in the following table with 100-word summaries of how each university learning goal can help you with career preparedness. University learning goal How each goal prepares you for success in the workplace Professional Competence and Values Professional Competence and Values prepares me for success in the workplace by giving me the classes that I need to be successful in a future career and my personal life. The university providing these courses, which give the skills and knowledge necessary to be successful, is helpful to me since I am not being put into classes that I have nothing to do with my career field. This goal also encourages lifelong learning, which encourages me to take more classes once I graduate from my current program and strive to learn more when I enter my career field post-graduation. Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Critical thinking and Problem Solving prepares me for success in the workplace by giving me the skills to be better with how I think about and address problems. While in the workplace, this will help me and has helped me so far to take my thoughts from just a yes or no answer, to answers that I have reflected on more. This goal will also help give me the skills to come up with a more reasoned and detailed solution when solving a problem. With that knowledge, I can explain to my employer the solution I chose for a problem and why I chose it. Communication Communication helps me prepare for success in the workplace by giving me the knowledge I need to be a better formal communicator. Learning how to better use grammar, punctuation, and tone in how I write will help when I need to  send memos to colleagues in my career field. Having that information will help me better communicate to them professionally, and not how I would talk to my friends on a daily basis. Communication will also help with how I present my ideas to others, so that they are easy to understand and respectful of colleagues both in the tone and words that I use. Information Utilization Information Utilization helps me prepare for success in the workplace by helping me to improve my research skills and how I use the information that I find. Having classes where I have to locate answers using the research skills that I already have, causes me to better refine what I am already doing so that when I enter a career field, I will not need assistance if I am looking for information that I may need. This goal also will help me to use the proper information, so that whatever I am working on can be right the first time and negate the need to have to go back and research again. Collaboration Collaboration helps me prepare for success in the workplace by allowing me to work in groups with other students on projects. Collaborating will give the ability to hear and see things from multiple points of view that I do not possess, something that will help me when I get to a career. Collaboration will help me with the ability to trust team members, and not be quick to judge or try to do things on my own, as in my chosen career field, that is not something I will be able to do, and will have to work with others on solutions.

The Bribary Scandal at Siemens Ag

For example, I am quite familiar with the ways business is done is Russia and I can assure you that bribing cases are very common there, with number of them being literally unavoidable. As for the case with bribing Wilhelm Seychelles, the chairman of the AUP labor union, I think it was completely unnecessary for such a big and respected company like Siemens to do that. Such bribing is certainly avoidable and It Is not worth for the company to risk It's reputation.In my opinion, It should be a concern of governments to prevent such actions and create mechanisms hat make any types of bribing activities Impossible, especially In companies In which the state owns a controlling stake. 2. I think if a company has a respected name in the field, offers competitive prices and meets all qualifications to win a contract, then it has couple of options to do so without bribing: a. Status off well-known and respected company gives it an ability to contact the government officials and local analogu e of U. S.Securities and Exchange Commission beforehand and ask to monitor the process of tendering. B. If the contract is for a large amount of money and, maybe, socially important, it might e a good Idea to attract the media to the deal. I believe these two options would scare away any company managers who are Intended to benefit from bribing. However, If the company Is In the situation when somebody demands money in return for a contract, it should immediately notify an appropriate agency and provide sufficient evidence in order for the officials to impose punitive sanctions against a breaking company. . In my opinion, the board made a right decision in not extending Killdeer's term. Even though Killed was not implicated in the scandal directly, l, honestly, hardly live that he, as the CEO of Siemens GAG, was unaware of the unlawful actions that had taken place within the company, since the amounts spent on the ‘consulting services' (Ð ²?420 million) seem to be too large n ot to notice them, or at least questionable.The practice of bribing for contracts might have been common at Siemens before and was Inherited by Killed from former CEO, Heimlich von Peeler. This practice doubled with Killdeer's aggressive, American style of management could have been reasons why Siemens GAG performed so well in the last few years roll to ten scandal. I also Delve Tanat whenever Clientele 010, It was Tort ten Detente of the company.After Killdeer's departure, considering how successfully he managed the company, it is most likely that Siemens' rate of growth and value of its shares will drop. If it wasn't for the bribery scandals, Killed could have much more work done for the company benefit over the following years. 4. As I could tell from the case and from my own experience, there are many companies that give money or gifts in exchange for contracts or some sort of favors. Siemens is not the only company accused of bribery.The enormous amounts Siemens spent on bribin g government officials and companies' managers probably led the investigations to begin. There are number of Siemens' competitors who were not as wealthy, and, as a consequence, couldn't get the same contracts, even though they might have been more qualified. My assumption is that the Siemens' competitors, angry about such injustice, could have been initiators of the investigations, which revealed the cases of bribing. Generally, I think Siemens was just unfortunate to get caught.

Financial Institutions and Organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Financial Institutions and Organizations - Essay Example Based on this data, the authors outline the best possible way to proceed and make a series of recommendations to support their argument. The central recommendations of Barth, Caprio, and Levine are organized around five distinct characteristics. The authors assert that adherence to these required characteristics will prevent the kind of widespread crisis that has been unfolding across the world, and will impose a level of institutionalized guardianship that has been heretofore nonexistent. The first recommendation by the authors is that the authoritative institution and overseer of market regulatory agencies be â€Å"independent of short-run politics† (203). Clearly, an effective system of regulation will need to be enforced by a legitimate and separate institution that is still subject to accountability measures and inquiry by the public it serves. With massive corruption and greed being such a prominent factor in the economic collapse, this aspect of guardianship would enabl e a built-in protection for consumers, the financial sector, and the political sector alike. When there is a method for preventing unfair and inappropriate practices, all parties will benefit. Additionally, the requirement that the organization be free of political sway will allow a more consistent guardianship that is external to the ebb and flow of political events and party favoritism. The second recommendation of Barth, Caprio, and Levine is that the regulatory agency be â€Å"independent of the financial services industry† (203). This follows a similar rationale as the requirement of political independence; how could the public possibly have confidence in a financial regulatory agency if it was run from within the industry? To prevent even the perception that the agency could be influenced by the greedy and self-serving motives of the financial industry, it will have to exist entirely outside the industry. Certainly the public’s view of the collapse includes the u nderstanding that the root cause was due at least in part to the industry’s faulty self-monitoring and widespread greed. The authors’ third recommendation is that this authoritative institution should have â€Å"the power to demand and obtain information necessary for assessing and monitoring the Guardians of Finance† (203). This attribute would require transparency from the financial sector and would allow the monitoring authority to have access to accurate, current, and thorough data. This requirement would have an impact on numerous levels; first, the financial entities would act more prudently, knowing that they could be asked to share the information at any time, and second, the information in and of itself would have guaranteed accuracy and therefore a better chance to make a positive impact. Had this type of regulation been in place in the early 2000s, a better assessment of lending practices and their impact on the economy could have prevented the widesp read adaptation of loan standards that were lowered to the point of nonexistence. This institution could use the information to compile analysis but also to report back to the public in a way the public could understand. Fourth, the authors assert that the institution should contain â€Å"the multidisciplinary expertise necessary for fruitfully processing that information† (203). If the institution is comprised solely of experts in one area of finance or economics, it will not be nearly as effective as if it were well-rounded. For example, experts on the

Analysis of a System, Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analysis of a System, - Case Study Example The system of this kind is called transport intelligent systems. From the case study on the city highway, it was thought of as the stock of flowing traffic. Therefore, a stock is a foundation of every system (Meadows, 2008). Here the stocks are traffic flows, road, traffic lights, etc. because they can be measured, counted, and visible all the time. 1 Traffic flow variation on the scale of years or decade implies a reduction or an increase in the volume. For an increase in traffic flow means increase in the number of private vehicles amidst the public vehicles while the road network within the city remains constant. Within a decade, traffic flow can be reduced when the number of private vehicles is reduced and the number of public vehicles and increase and also increasing the road network within the city 2 Traffic flow can vary by day of week and/ hours of the day through creating many access ways to the city centre to reduce traffic congestion on the road. Traffic flow can be high on the working day of the week especially when there is a significant event taking place, for example, national celebrations such as Independence Day, etc. and on this day traffic flow become so high compared to any other days of the week. Traffic flow can in hours of the day, taking the morning hours (starting from 7:00 am to 8:30 am) when people are rushing to their work. At this time the traffic, volume is very high and reduces starting from 9:00 am when most people have reached their workplaces (Meadows, 2008). Then from 5:00 pm, the traffic flow starts increasing up to 7:00 pm when most people have reached their homes. 3 Traffic flow can vary with distance from the city due to presence of junction on the road; where there is a road junction at far distance from the road traffic diverts and leave the city centre with less traffic therefore leading to a reduction in traffic flow. Where there is a road

Class Responses Week 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Class Responses Week 7 - Essay Example This is usually because in-group usually has both personal and professional bondage with the leader. The leader is aware of the different ways to deal with the members in the in-group. Contract staff is more distant because they have little time to bond with the rest of the team. I believe that managers should be trained to deal with contract staff so that they feel part of the in-group. I agree with you. Your example shows that TMX centric approach is not effective all the time. It creates a divide in the team which is difficult to handle. The work is also unevenly distributed in this kind of approach. The out-group does not participate equally and this often creates issues in team which is difficult to handle. This approach does not discuss how to distribute work evenly. Also you have given a good suggestion on how to improve the approach by personally dealing with each member in order to include them in the group. I believe that your experience shows that TMX approach is not quite effective. Sometimes it blocks talent from emerging. Productivity really depends on how the subordinate connects with the leader. Sometimes the connection is slow to develop and this approach would impact how the subordinate works even later on. I agree with you that TMX can be effective in developing a sense of ownership among the employees with the organization. I think this approach is quite visible in the military. People in the military do tend to stick with groups and this brings out the problem with this

The Economic and Political Migration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Economic and Political Migration - Essay Example The shift to the west was promoted by the federal government's massive wartime defense spending that centered in the western states and most notably California. In addition there were tax breaks for the oil industry as well as the social security program that helped sustain the area's growth. Perry and Watkins contend that once the western cities gained the advantage of defense spending, they were able to capitalize on that advantage by the theory of "cumulative causation" (Walton 409). Perry and Watkins further argue that the sunbelt cities that prospered from this advantage also erected artificial developmental barriers in a shift away from the New Deal liberalism, and this perpetuated the process. (Walton 409). As the rustbelt declined, it was unable to attract new economic activity in the changing face of technology. William Julius Wilson puts forth a more contemporary theory. Wilson states that the cities of the Northeast declined due to "economic transformation" (8). He describes this as a shift in metropolitan development strategy that was driven by the change in industry from production based to capital and technology based (8-9). More modern machines were replacing the methods popularized by Henry Ford. International competition further eroded the cities and diminished the value of physical capital.

Colin Crouch on Corporate Accountability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Colin Crouch on Corporate Accountability - Essay Example As the discussion declares   the bust and boom phenomena will continue because the neoliberal ideology has long time implications on the decisions made by organizations. Though there is need for the interests of organisations and the public good to be pursued, the government cannot interfere in the operations of businesses. Likewise, organisations cannot interfere with the business policies developed by the government despite the impacts it has on its operations. Therefore, in order to eliminate this dilemma, Crouch argues that a middle ground must be achieved that brings together the profits interests of businesses with the public good. The middle ground can only be achieved through corporate social responsibility as corporations have today grown into major actors in the public domain. In this paper, the position taken by Crouch that corporation must reduce their dominance with profit success and embrace corporate social accountability will be evaluated. This evaluation will be ba sed on the views adopted by other management scholars in line with the neoliberal attitude towards corporate social responsibility. In Crouch, the impacts neoliberalism and the financial turmoil on the behaviour of corporations have been addressed in the face of their accountability to the society.  

Adenauers Foreign Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Adenauers Foreign Policy - Essay Example n, anticommunist foreign policy for which Davison & Speier (1957) has expressed their opinion in the following words: "To a generation living with the memories of World War II, into which another German chancellor had plunged the world less than twenty years earlier, Adenauer has been the symbol of sobriety and moderation. His firm adherence to the principles underlying Western civilisation is beyond doubt, and his policies bear no trace of Hitler's nihilism and hybrid". (Davison & Speier, 1957, p. 2) And obviously both Adenauer and Brandt acquire this political characteristic that despite being chancellors of their eras, they only concern about ways to unite the broken Germany, not by aggression but by political diplomacy.Adenauer performed a historic role for confronting various challenging issues just after the Second World War. All his foreign policies lead him towards a single solution i.e., a united Europe and that is what he dreamt about throughout his life. Not only dreamt bu t also implemented his visions in the form of practical solution by developing certain policies, that remained successful in uniting both the East and West of the Germany. The best thing about Adenauer's regime was he did not receive resistance from a large communist minority. However, he received several obstructions on the basis of the opposition he received from the German Social Democratic party. Adenauer's Foreign Policy - German Sovereignty Adenauer felt the need to develop his own foreign policy in the late 1940s when he saw the German policies been threatened by France. At this stage he felt a real need to devise a new set of foreign policies but due to the restriction imposed upon him he was unable to do so. The only option he found open was to secure German sovereignty, and this could only be achieved by integrating FRG (Federal Republic of Germany) to Western Europe. Adenauer recovered Germany by effective foreign and domestic policy thereby standardising the German currency rate in 1948. It was in 1950s when Adenauer succeeded in recognising his new state's entry into Western institutions. In this context the first move he made was the acceptance of the partnership of those nations who at times were Germany's greatest opponents. France was at the top of the list. This was the first step towards establishment of a secure foreign policy that defended German sovereignty. Dissolving the Ruhr Authority Adenauer contributed towards gaining rights of the Ruhr's authority and was able to acquire freedom to the FRG thereby alleviating all provisions and statutes against European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). According to Schwarz (1995) "The economy of Western Europe had to be regarded as an interdependent system and could not prosper without the Ruhr. In his view it followed from this that a forced suppression of the German economy was in no-one's interests. Drawing on his experiences stretching back over almost three decades, he maintained that the establishment of a bloc-free Germany would be unwise, too. He pleaded for a reconstruction of the German economy; this meant that the Ruhr should be internationalised and linked closely with the Western European economic system". (Schwarz, 1995, p. 40) So, the foremost achievement of Adenauer was the independence of Ruhr authority, which without him

Ethics in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ethics in Nursing - Essay Example Introduction ETHICS IN NURSING A nurse should provide care that respect human right and is sensitive to the values, customs and beliefs of all people (S. Barnun, 2008). They should at all times provide information regarding ethical issues. Nurses should also provide their patients with all the necessary information to enable them have informed consent and have freedom to accept or decline to treatment. The information given to them should be recorded and stored in a confidential manner. Nurses should be sensitive to the importance of social activities in correct concern. Ethics in nursing affects all areas of health profession which include direct care of patients, allocation of resources and finances and staff utilization. Nurses need to first cross examine their values systems in order to determine best approach and procedures to use when dealing with a patient with different values. Nurses have the challenge of dealing with patients whose values differ with theirs. Nurses should p rotect patients’ rights and interest and they should therefore make decisions which are ethical in all manner. Understanding of these ethical principles enables a nurse to make appropriate decisions in line of duty, given that in their daily work they deal with issues of moral and ethical nature (Beucham, 2008). Nonmaleficence is always considered a basic task of all nurses. This involves willingness to cause no harm such as physiological, social and even spiritual to the patient. Through this principle a nurse is able to evaluate whether the treatment given will lead to more harm or whether it will help the patient. This enables them to decide on the best treatment approach. The treatment offered should not cause excessive pain, should not be expensive and should be convenient. During treatment the nurse is obliged to giving the patient enough information on consequences, side effects and overall cost of the treatment. The nurse should consider all the potential and benefits of treatment or research and they should work and act carefully, considering the likely risks. This principle carries more weight compared to beneficence as it’s expected that a nurse should be sure of not doing any harm before he can be justified to promote clients legitimate interests. The nurse way of defining harm may differ with that of patient or community and hence should reflect on many definitions and meaning of harm. Veracity Fromer (2010) argues that this is a moral principle that underlies the thought to confide in and fiduciary relationship. This involves being truthful in informing the patients in concern to their health needs and this therefore enables them to make a choice and increase their decision making. Veracity is regarded as a key principle to the existence of trust which is fundamental in advancing the relationship between the nurse and the patient. This furthermore makes the data –gathering procedure easier and reduces the likelihood of nurses giving holistic care which do not meet the nursing goals. To determine the amount of information to give to a patient, clinical judgment is required to avoid giving the patient more than necessary information. There is a great challenge in situations where veracity has some implication in attending to patients from backgrounds where he or she is not allowed to know how

Soil Erosion and Public Health in Nigeria Essay Example for Free

Soil Erosion and Public Health in Nigeria Essay Soil Erosion and Public Health in Nigeria Introduction            Soil erosion and environmental degradation are some of the mainly severe public health and environmental problems affecting or facing human kind /society. Statics show that, human beings obtain 99.7 percent of their food from the land and the rest is obtained aquatic bodies such as oceans and other water ecosystems. However, each year more than 10 million hectares of crop land are lost through soil erosion and in turn this reduces the cropland that is available for human kind to produce his food. This loss of cropland has turned to be a serious problem as according to the world health organization, more than 3.6 billion human beings are affected by malnourishment globally (Showers, 2005). Generally, soil is being lost from land areas 10 to 40 times faster than the rate of soil renewal imperiling future human food security and environmental quality. This paper critically examines the impact of soil erosion towards public health in developing countries specifically Nigeria (Showers, 2005). Soil erosion is one of the key environmental degradation problems in the developing world. Despite the enormous existence of literature on causes, and impacts of soil erosion a concrete understanding of this complex problem is lacking in the developing countries. The analysis discusses the negative impacts of soil erosion towards the public health care (Cornell University, 2006).            Loss of soil from the land surfaces through the process of soil erosion is spreading globally and negatively affects the production of almost all natural ecosystems as well as agricultural. Together with the escalating human population worldwide, soil erosion, energy and water availability, and loss of biodiversity are ranked as the prime environmental problems all over the world (Beinart, 2008). The change that is inflicted on the soil through human induced erosion over the years is significant and has in turn resulted in valuable land becoming unproductive and eventually it is abandoned. Soil erosion reduces soil quality and hence reducing soil productivity as well that of natural, agricultural and other elated ecosystems. Public health can be summarized as the art and science of avoiding disease as well prolonging and promoting life and health respectively. Soil erosion has been one of the major threats to public globally as its effects have threatened the healt h system in communities (African Development Foundation, 1994).            Public Healthcare in NigeriaThe country’s national government is and has been responsible for the provision of effective health care upon its people. The Nigerian government is the one responsible for providing adequate health care to its people. Health care provision in Nigeria is a simultaneous duty done by the three tiers of administration in the country (Vanlauwe et al, 2005). Its structure is such in a way that, the Federal governments role is limited to coordinating the dealings of the University Teaching Hospitals, Federal Medical Centers. On the other hand, the state management focuses its responsibility for managing various general hospitals, while the local government focuses on dispensaries. In addition, private providers of health care significantly contribute to health care delivery. Even though the spending on health in Nigeria has risen from Naira’s 12.48 million in 1970 to 120.98 million in 2010, health care structure remains ineffecti ve and plays a key role in the poverty status of the country. Over the last two decades, Nigerias public health care system has deteriorated in large partly because of a lack of resources and a brain drain† syndrome of Nigerian doctors as well as skilled health workers to other countries. This as well has been accelerated by the industrial processes which have seen the vast usage of the land, in addition to increased farming practices to cater for the food demand. This, however, has along with natural disasters such as soil erosion brought along a hitch in provision of effective public health care (Orisakwe et al, 2004). Soil erosion            This is a natural process that involves dislodgement and removal of soil particles from one place to the other. There are different factors that contribute to susceptibility of soil to erosion as well as the rate at which it occurs. There are different types of soil erosion such as water and wind erosion. In other terms, Soil erosion entails breaking down, detaching, transporting, and redistributing of soil constituents. This can be through numerous forces such as water, wind, or gravity. Globally soil erosion has been a thing of concern and interest, especially its impact on cropland. This is because of its impacts on crop productivity and soil quality as well as its off-site effects on water quality and quantity, air quality, and biological activity. Cropland includes cultivated and non-cultivated cropland.            Soil Erosion in NigeriaNigeria is one of the African countries with high population, which is around over 170 million people with more than 400 ethnic groups. More than 80 % of Nigeria’s population rely entirely on farming for their upkeep and economic gains. Since the early 20th century, soil erosion in Nigeria has been earmarked as a key problem in the country, not only a threat to the agricultural sector, but as well as a threat to the public health through the process of environmental degradation. One of the major negative points to note is that, the current rate of soil erosion is higher than the rate of production. This has in turn threatened the current practices in agriculture. The high rate of soil erosion suggests that, agricultural practices are unsustainable under prevailing geological conditions. The process of accepting and managing these processes has significant long term repercussion for cropland sustainability, natural resource state and he alth, not forgetting the environmental quality (Berkhout et al, 2011).            Soil erosion is a major problem which is confronting health and land resources in Nigeria. Previous researches in the country have indicated that, more than 70% of the country’s surface has been affected by different types of soil erosion and of different intensities. Despite the process being a natural process, human activities such as overgrazing and clearing of vegetation accelerates it. Degradation of land is the loss of topsoil and in turn reducing its productivity. Moreover, it leads to sedimentation of water bodies which increases suspended sediment concentration in streams, with consequent effects on ecosystem health (Iwegbue et al, 2012).            Fig. 1.0 Gully Erosion Site at Urualla Imo State, Nigeria (Agbenin, 2002)            Impact of soil erosion on public health in NigeriaOne of the major concerns about soil erosion in SA is the pollution effects caused by the soil erosion. Soil erosion has greatly led to the loss of vegetation, leaving the land bare. This leads to accumulation of dust in the air. This in turn impacts air quality in the country and mostly the greatly affected regions such as Camperdown and Greytown districts. Soil erosion has been one of the catalysts of the deforestation process in Nigeria. Deforestation is the loss of trees which are essential in the support of human activity as well as protecting the environment. Deforestation makes people’s life harder as it destroys the habitats of numerous creatures and contributes to desertification. Poor air quality poses a public health to the Nigerian community as it leads to asthmatic problems as well as other airborne diseases. In summary, soil erosion leads to an increase the amount of dust carried by wind. Does t his not only at as an air pollutant and an abrasive, but also carries along about more than 20 human infectious disease organisms such as tuberculosis and anthrax (Agbenin, 2002).            Soil erosion leads to numerous soil contamination which also impacts on human health. Over the time, there has been a significant pollutant in the air as well as water, which contributes to poor health among the citizens. Through the process of soil erosion, the pollutants in the air and on the earth’s surface are washed into the water bodies through soil erosion. Industrialization on the other hand, has resulted in soil pollution with heavy metals which have posed a health problem to the Nigerian communities. Some of the harmful elements washed into water bodies include mercury, lead, arsenic, fluoride, Asbestos, cadmium, benzene and hazardous pesticides which all of them are chemicals of public concern. These ‘heavy metals’ are frequently washed into water bodies and in turn contaminating the fresh water consumed by people in Nigeria. Metals such as arsenic are termed as carcinogenic as well as causing bone marrow and blood diseases when taken for a long period of time. Asbestos on the other hand causes lung carcinoma, liver and kidney damage. Many of these elements have negatively impacted the provision of effective public health services (Salami et al, 2003).            Mining has been one of the economic activities in Nigeria, however, this has not been for the benefit of the farming and environment protections as it had been a health risk to the community. When water erosion (which is the prominent agent of erosion in Nigeria) sweeps across the mining fields much of the minerals are swept into the water bodies. Some of the elements are toxic and a risk to human health. In addition, the gases released from the mining areas are carried as dust through wind erosion and in turn posing a health problem to the Nigerians especially the community living near the mining areas. For example, sulphur dioxide causes damage of the respiratory system. In addition, the sulphur compounds also affect visibility, reduction of sunlight, unpleasant smells, irritation and smarting in the eyes, nose and throat which is a health concern to the community around the mining areas (Salami et al, 2003).            Acidity in the soil and water bodies has been a public health to the Nigerian community. Soil erosion leads to the accumulation of solid waste in water bodies. This has become a serious environmental problem facing Nigeria. The consequence of these solid wastes is pollution of water, land and air not forgetting to mention is hazardous to women’s health as well as their social well being. With the increased urbanization in the country as well as high population, the amount of solid waste being generated has greatly increased. At the moment, virtually all the major cities in Nigeria are faced with the menace of solid waste management. The wastes are in one way or another swept into rivers and other water bodies. Due to their daily involvement with farming and house chores, women are exposed to numerous communicable diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, cholera, yaw; malaria, yellow fever, and relapsing fever that affect women are associated with improper dispos al of wastes (Oladapo et al, 2009).            Soil erosion has drastically reduced land productivity, especially the southern parts of Nigeria. In addition, soil erosion has also led to essential nutrient depletion as a form of land degradation. This has brought along severe economic impact in Nigeria. Reduced land production has severely affected food production in the country. The result of this is a shortage of food in the communities. Reduced food production in the community has increased the impact of drought to the residents. With reduced food production, the community cannot be able to sustain their people and in turn when the dry season comes along, the communities are largely hit by drought. Over the last 30 years, soil erosion in Nigeria has rendered more that 32% of arable land unproductive, this has in turn led to severe food shortage as well as food related diseases such as kwashiorkor among the children in Nigerian farming communities (Sotona Adesodun, 2014).            Soil erosion on the other hand has contributed to flooding occurs throughout Nigeria in three main forms which are urban, river and coastal flooding. For example, urban flooding such as the Ogunpa disaster which claimed over 200 lives and damaged property worth millions of Naira in Ibadan, are common occurrences. Flooding and accumulation of waste product has as well posed a public health concern to the Nigerians, especially the communities living along rivers and coastal lines. About 60 % of the soil that is swept away by the erosion process ends up in rivers, lakes and streams. This makes waterways more prone to flooding as well as contamination from soil, pesticides and fertilizers which are harmful to human health not only in Nigeria but also globally. Soil erosion is believed to have severe and adverse effect on the developing countries economic stability. Nigeria is termed as a developing country and it has suffered economically as a result of soil erosion. L arge sums of funds have been deployed in the fight against the menace and it’s especially the impact to the country’s health care system (Ehigiator Anyata, 2011).            The stubborn persistence of soil erosion in Nigeria as well as its threat to public health has raised numerous ethical questions recent times. Freeing humanity from health menace caused by soil erosion is a moral obligation that weighs on the Nigerian government more heavily as the capabilities and technology advance continues to be experienced. The world and Nigeria in particular, undoubtedly has the productive capacity to produce adequate quality health care and facilities not to mention their ability to control or prevent soil erosion and in turn eradicate health risks to the people. In recent years, rapid technology advances have led to better environmental management, however soil erosion management or prevention in Nigeria has not been fully achieved and in turn hindering good public health (Edosomwan, 2013).            The value of enhancing the well being of the Nigerians, today almost all the nations recognizes the need to enhance the well being of its people. While charity necessary might be necessary to respond to pressing issues in the community, it can not, however, provide for long-term solutions such as the case of soil erosion menace. Long term reversal of such cases can only be achieved through providing the Nigerians with skills, capital, employment, education and opportunities. In addition, for sustainable agriculture and rural development to flourish, as well as a valuable rural infrastructure must be in place as well as policy that will promote effective farming methods as well as soil erosion prevention measures (Adedipe, 1992). Measures to reduce negative effects of soil erosion in Nigeria            The Nigerian government together with World Health Organization has embarked on education, strategy for the farmers on how to improve their farming practices as well as how to prevent soil erosion in their farms. Effective farming practices within the communities are estimated to reduce the extent of soil erosion by 40 %. This would in turn reduce the amount of harmful elements being swept through soil erosion into water bodies. Moreover, farmers are encouraged to plant trees to reduce the desertification process as well as arrest the deforestation process. For example, the World Bank has financed the rehabilitation of land in Enugu, a region with massive gullies caused by erosion in order to prevent loss of life and property (Adeniyi, 1986).            The government has also embarked on landscaping and building of dykes in order to reduce the problem of flooding. The issue of uncontrolled floods from regions such as Osina and Akokwa has raised the concern of flood control. Residents of the Urualla community, for example, had themselves committed towards finding a lasting solution to the problem especially their financial contribution to the cost of the engineering design for the site and urged them to sustain the momentum. Through the arrest of soil erosion, the government has managed to somewhat control the menace of soil erosion and especially its negative effect to the health sector. The fight against the malaria epidemic in African countries has been a success which is one of diseases caused by flooding as a result of soil erosion. Lastly, the government and NGOs have embarked on educating the community members on healthy living such as ways to avoid water borne diseases. As well as providing adequate medica l attention when needed (Ananda Herath, 2003). Conclusions            Nigeria is subject to soil erosion, due to deprived farming practices, together with erodible soils. When considered across all land-use types, it is clear that soil degradation is perceived as more of a problem in Agulu-Nanka (Plate 1), Obioma, Nsuka, and less of a problem in Borno, Kaduna, Kano and Sokoto. This has in turn turned to be a massive public health menace to the community not only in Nigeria but globally as well. It is clear that the process of soil erosion has brought along complicated health problems. The measure has been implemented to reduce the menace of soil erosion and in turn minimize the negative impact on public health.            Despite the dedicated collaborative efforts of both the concerned parties such as the Nigerian government, NGOs, donor agencies provide an effective and efficient health care delivery in the county, confronting problems renders these efforts much less than desired. Some of the problems include poor farming practices, poor waste disposal, deforestation, which is believed to be a catalyst to soil erosion, re-emergence of HIV/AIDS pandemic, poor quality care as well as irrational appointments of health workers has not done the sector any good. Lack of information on prevention of soil erosion as well as the weight of these problems, is further compounded by insufficient budget allocation, lack of strategic plan and prepare for epidemics/pandemics. References Adedipe, N.O. (1992) â€Å"The African Environment: A changing and Scary Scenario† Adeniyi E.O. (1986) â€Å"Environmental Management and Development in Nigeria† A paper presented at the proceedings of a National Conference on Development and the Environment, Rosprint Industrial Press Ltd. African Development Foundation (U.S.). (1994).  Participatory development: ADF, funded projects, 1993. Washington, DC (1400 Eye St., NW, Washington 20005: The Foundation. Agbenin, J. (2002). The impact of long-term cultivation and management history on the status and dynamics of cobalt in a savanna Alfisol in Nigeria.  European Journal Of Soil Science,  53(2), 169-174. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2389.2002.00433.x Ananda, J., Herath, G. (2003). Soil erosion in developing countries: a socio-economic appraisal.  Journal Of Environmental Management,  68(4), 343. doi:10.1016/S0301- Berkhout, E. D., Schipper, R. A., Van Keulen, H. H., Coulibaly, O. O. (2011). Heterogeneity in farmers’ production decisions and its impact on soil nutrient use: Results and implications from northern Nigeria.  Agricultural Systems,  104(1), 63-74. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2010.09.006 Beinart, W. (2008).  The rise of conservation in Nigeria: Settlers, livestock, and the environment, 1770-1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cornell University. (2006, March 23). Soil Erosion Threatens Environment and Human Health, Study Reports. ScienceDaily. Retrieved June 26, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/03/060322141021.htmEdosomwan, N. L., Obazuaye, E. E., Edosomwan, E. U. (2013). Impacts Of Dam On Characteristics Of Tropical Rainforest Soils And Sediments In South Central Nigeria.  Indian Journal Of Agricultural Research,  47(1), 73-77.4797(03)00082-3 Ehigiator, O. A., Anyata, B. U. (2011). Effects of land clearing techniques and tillage systems on runoff and soil erosion in a tropical rain forest in Nigeria.  Journal Of Environmental Management,  92(11), 2875-2880. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.06.015 Iwegbue, C. A., Nwajei, G. E., Eguavoen, O. I. (2012). Impact of Land-Use Patterns on Chemical Properties of Trace Elements in Soils of Rural, Semi-Urban, and Urban Zones of the Niger Delta, Nigeria.  Soil Sediment Contamination,  21(1), 19-30. doi:10.1080/15320383.2012.636772 Oladapo, O. T., Adetoro, O. O., Fakeye, O., Ekele, B. A., Fawole, A. O., Abasiattai, A., Dada, O. A. (2009). National data system on near miss and maternal death: shifting from maternal risk to public health impact in Nigeria.  Reproductive Health,  68-18. Orisakwe, O., Asomugha, R., Afonne, O., Anisi, C. N., Obi, E., Dioka, C. (2004). Impact of Effluents from a Car Battery Manufacturing Plant in Nigeria on Water, Soil, and Food Qualities.  Archives Of Environmental Health,  59(1), 31-36. Pretty, J. N. (1995).  Regenerating agriculture: Policies and practice for sustainability and self-reliance. Washington, D.C: Joseph Henry Press. Salami, A., Jimoh, M. A., Muoghalu, J. I. (2003). Impact Of Gold, Mining On Vegetation And Soil In Southwestern Nigeria.  International Journal Of Environmental Studies,  60(4), 343-352. Showers, K. B. (2005).  Imperial gullies: Soil erosion and conservation in Lesotho. Athens (Ohio: Ohio University Press.Smil, V. (2001).  Feeding the world: A challenge for the twenty-first century. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Pres Sotona, T., Salako, F., Adesodun, J. (2014). Soil physical properties of selected soil series in relation to compaction and erosion on farmers’ fields at Abeokuta, southwestern Nigeria.  Archives Of Agronomy Soil Science,  60(6), 841-857. doi:10.1080/03650340.2013.844334 Vanlauwe, B. B., Diels, J. J., Sanginga, N. N., Merckx, R. R. (2005). Long-term integrated soil fertility management in South-western Nigeria: Crop performance and impact on the soil fertility status.  Plant Soil,  273(1/2), 337-354. doi:10.1007/s11104-005-0194-2 Source document

Basic Lan Network Design Using Cisco Packet Tracer

Basic Lan Network Design Using Cisco Packet Tracer Learning Outcomes are formal statements that articulate what students or learners are able to achieve after following set of instructions, and why they need to do it. It is a process that weighs the objective of doing something and the outcomes of doing that thing. To measure if the LOs have been met, students need to be assessed. Assessment gives the assessor the opportunity to understand how well students have learnt, and also to use the evidence for constant improvements (Baume 2009). LOs, enables the selection of contents that are important for learners, develop instructional strategies to deliver these contents, design, develop and chose what instructional materials to use, build tests materials for assessing and evaluating learners and improve the teacher ability to deliver contents. Using actionable phrases (verbs) to know the why can lead to great learning outcomes formulation. For example, in order to locate background information and statistics of a phenomenon, a learner starts by identifying, consulting and evaluating reference books or journal articles related to the topic. To formulate the LOs in this case, the teacher starts with what students need to know? And why they need to know it (Pek 2002). This introductory section of LOs, form the preamble for what LOs should be and how they should be formulate for quality teaching. LO1 Using effective teaching methods and support of learning With my experience of delivering lectures at the university, colleges in London, being an IT trainer, I have used a wide range of teaching methods over the years. Depending on the environment and the LOs, in this section I intend to elaborate on some of the methods that I have used in the past, advantages and disadvantages of the different teaching methods used. The process of determining LOs starts with the selection of a teaching method (TM), lecturing, small group and class discussions, videotapes, webcast and one-to-one discussion are common examples of TM. In my experience, there is no cut and dry method, in most cases a combination of strategies works well. In line with Gibbs (Gibbs Habeshaw 1993) due consideration should be given to the following when selecting a TM: The subject matter, i.e. what is it about? How knowledgeable the learners are to the subject What need to be achieved (learning objectives) What is the available time frame to meet the learning objectives How many learners are involved or the size of the group Are the participants the right people for the subject? Learning styles of participants Available equipment The room layout The cost Different students learn better in different ways, for example, international students in my class in London prefer visual information while home students prefer verbal inputs. My class is not unique, Glauco reported the same phenomenon in his work on learning style in the multicultural classroom (Vita 2001). This phenomenon can be attributed to cultural differences which play an important role in individual learning style. Additionally, different subjects and topics are easier to understand when taught in different ways. I deploy an interactive strategy with adult students undertaking Cisco Networks training program, this permit discussions, interactions, participation and exchange of viewpoints because of the subjective type and the learning environment which require interactivity between students, the trainer and hardware equipment (experiential learning). Contrasting this with a lecture hall at the university with over 80 students, I deploy a power point presentation with explana tions, pauses, questions and answers because of the class size, the time frame (1 hour) and the subject type which has a no student-hardware interactions(cognitive and constructive learning). In light of selecting teaching method, I have always select suitable methods for the stated learning objectives and LOs. The following sections highlight some of the methods I have used in the past and reasons behind their selection. Lecture Lecture is widely accepted as the best teaching method for larger classes (Carpenter 2006), in computer science (e.g. computer networks), lectures are often followed by lab sessions where students individually work on materials through guided lab sheets. In most cases, the lectures are used to illustrate processes rather than analysis of contents. As a lecturer of computer network (CNET) modules at the university we follow this approach. Students attend an hour lecture which is then followed by a two hours lab session where they implement different network designs and architecture discussed in during lectures. By using both cognitive and constructive learning theories(Swan 2005), the learning objective of the module can be achieved. Though a very useful method, based on my experience and research in this area (Griffiths Oates 2003), lecturing strategy has the following advantages and disadvantages as summarise in the table 1. Table : Advantages and disadvantages of lecture method Advantages Disadvantages Lecture can be used in any classroom size. In a larger classroom, lecture is the only option. It is teacher centred and do not take account of different students learning styles In a conducive and well-presented lecture, students can be motivated to investigate more about a topic. Reduces student participation as they become passive and less active with topics of less interest. The teacher being at the centre of the lecture has total control over everything that happen in the class creating a one-to-many based communication which might be ideal for a large class size learning environment. It is one way communication, students ability to learn depends on notes taking and attentiveness. The teacher can only know if learning is taking place through questions and answers. Discussion This learning method enables students to be actively involved in what they are supposed to be learning. In the computer science discipline (e.g. computer network) which I am involved, students are divided into groups of 3 each. The first 10 minutes of the lab session used to read and brainstorming possible implementation solutions by reflecting on the in-class lectures. This is important because students are given the chance to openly express their opinion about the lab, and what is deemed as possible implementation solution is agreed by the group with the guidance of the teaching. Using discussion method and social learning theory (Bandura 1969), I am able to pull knowledge and ideas from different students. This is useful because in most cases students will have background information about the lab from lectures and should be able to evaluate and analyse different opinions. Students learn by being able to implement their own solutions to a lab scenario. Though a useful method in the lab environment, from my teaching experience and research in discussion teaching methods (Welty 1989), table 2 summarize the advantages and disadvantages of using discussion method as a teaching method. Table : Advantages and disadvantages of Discussion method Advantages Disadvantages Students have the leverage to actively process information and ideas. It is time consuming and unfocused if no clear direction is given to the students. It is unique opportunity for students to share experiences and get involved in making decision on what best practices should be used to achieve the objective of the lab. Students could be protective of their ideas and makes it difficult for the instructor to get others involved. Being interactive, it open communication channels between teachers and students to feedback each other. The size of the class must be restricted Demonstration This laboratory work approach of learning enable students to role play (i.e. experiential learning theory) concepts introduce in lectures (Fry et al. 2009) and (Kolb Boyatzis 1999) Introduction to new concepts, procedures and techniques, can be a bit daunting to students; I have used demonstration to complement in-class lectures at the university and in other colleges that I lecture. Demonstration sessions generally begin with an overview lab session, and the list of points the students need to focus on. Using this approach gives them an idea of what the objectives and the LOs are. This is followed by the session proper, where students are given the chance to perform the procedures just explained in the introduction session. To ensure students are in line with the objectives, I spend the rest of the time observing what they are doing, offering suggestions and feedbacks. Using demonstration as preliminary approach for students to practice some of the concepts learnt in lectures has proven to be a good method of teaching. In light with Brophy (Brophy 2000) and my experience in using demonstration teaching method, table 3 show some of the advantages and disadvantages of using demonstration as a learning method. Table : Advantages and disadvantages of demonstration method Advantages disadvantages Active participation is critical to learning new skills, demonstration enable students to participate in learning. This method does not work well in large class environment, in most cases, videotapes are shown in monitor, which takes away that interactiveness with students Students interest peak up, as they can experience some of the concepts first hand by getting involved It is time consuming to set demonstration sessions In computer networks, demonstration is the only method of conveying complex theories. Demonstration might not always go as planned, as things break down, takes a long time to set them up. Conclusion Teaching methods form the bases on how teaching has to be delivered, different environments, subject, topics and students may require different teaching methods. A combination of two or more teaching methods can be used in effective teaching. However, due consideration should be given to what learning theory can be used and the pros and the cons of individual teaching methods. LO4: Designing, selecting, and using learning resources and ICT to develop an effective learning environment and learner support system. An effective lesson depends on the materials used to deliver or teach it, for students to learn to their maximum potentials, teachers need to identify and create effective teaching materials. A teaching material could be any tool used to deliver or convey information and test students understanding of a subject. Teaching materials includes videos, audio cassette, worksheets, websites and simulators. Designing and selecting teaching materials takes into account the educational goals of the students (Allwright 1981) and how the teacher want the students to absorb, process and retain information during learning (learning theories). With experience of designing and selecting learning materials (e.g. simulators, websites, presentation slides, websites, hardware and software) for students undertaking courses in academic and professional environment, many factors including those in the literature(Commonwealth of Learning 2005) have influence my design and selection of different teaching materials (Cisco packet tracer, MS PowerPoint and Word) among which includes; The objective: the design and selection of learning resources start by identifying what I want the students to know at the end of each lesson, this is known as the cognitive objective (Krathwohl 2002). For example, during the design and selection of learning resources (e.g. Cisco packet tracer, words documents and www.pritmas.com) for Cisco network first year students, the introductory materials are always in form of hand-out and references to useful internet websites. These materials set their expectations from day one and give students an overview the course. Additionally, the design and selection of learning resources also take into account what I want students to be able to do at the end of each lesson, also known as behavioural objectives (Kizlik 2002). Resources vary with learning objectives. For example, computer science students undertaking networking modules have different learning objectives from Cisco students undertaking Cisco Certification courses. However, achieving the objectives of the lesson is deeply incorporated into the design and selection of learning materials. By using tailored learning resources, my students have constantly show high level of interest in the subject. Audience analysis: who are the learners, this comes into play when designing and selecting learning resources. Their race and ages are some key attributes that has to be taken into consideration. This attributes enable tailored delivery of learning objectives. In a multicultural or single culture classroom where students may or may not have different experiences, considering their background knowledge before making references to objects or places they are more familiar with can increase students understanding of a lessons. For instance, HND students undertaking computer hardware module in Cameroon and have never been to the UK have a quite a different type of environment compare to students in the UK taking the same module. With this disparity, the design and selection of materials for the two audiences is different. With experience of delivering the same module in both countries, examples or references used to relate learning objective is different. Different students have different learning style and will learn more effectively when their learning style is used to convey information. As shown in (Vita 2001) foreign students turn to prefer visual learning while home students prefer auditory learning style, having an inventory of what learning style students prefer is important in learning material (e.g. head on projectors and audio clips) design and selection. In a multicultural classroom, it could be daunting to design or select learning materials that will appeal to all the students. To overcome this, I have constantly deployed audio and visual learning materials interchangeably during lectures and practical lessons to ensure no particular group is at the disadvantage. Designing and selecting materials is one thing, how they will be delivered to students is something different. Methods of delivering learning resources include image projection using LCD projector, hand-out copies, website based delivering methods. My methods of contents delivering are largely influenced by students learning style which could be a function of culture as mentioned above. Instructional technology has been at the forefront of my learning material design and selection, technology ease the process of creating and dissemination learning resources to students. However, technology could hinder students who are not familiar with the technology being used in learning (Lea et al. 2001). As an IT teacher, technology has enhanced my ability to engage students and enact different learning theories. For example, I have used personal website(Pritmas.com 2013) to distribute learning resources and support students queries. Conclusion Advances in instructional technologies inherently have a great impact on how lesson resources are design, selected and distributed. For effective design and selection of these resources, key factors such as learning objective, knowing who the students are, learning style, how these materials will be delivered and seeking to integrate technologies into the design and delivering of learning resources is important. However, technologies might be a disadvantaged for students who are not familiar with the technology in used. So teachers should work to overcome this hindrance by selecting appropriate learning theories i.e. how they want students to absorb, process and retain information during learning. Response to reviewers and feedbacks In what ways did the review help? What new ideas do you plan to investigate? Part 3, is your opportunity to respond to the reviewers feedback. In the light of the feedback and discussion with your reviewer, which of your session intended learning outcomes listed in part 1 of the form do you feel were achieved by your learners? How do you know this? Were any met less well and why do you feel this was the case? The following LOs were achieved: Understand DNS concept Explain the composition of an IP address and Domain name Install configure a DNS server and client Through quick assessment (in class question and answer, and the ability for students to implement the lab scenarios) and feedbacks from students, they now feel comfortable to implement and explain theories behind DNS and can now define an IP address and its function in communication On reflection, based on the comments and feedback, explain how you plan to adopt or follow up on new ideas. In your second and third reviews please identify any commonalities between the feedbacks from the different observers. Which aspects will you investigate or find out more about? What will you do and why? This process has been learning exercise, on reflection; I intend to adopt and use the objectives and LOs to structure my teaching, starting from session planning to delivering and assessment. By using SMART objectives and identifying learners needs, it is important to follow a pedagogic structure to ensure LOs are met. I now look forward to work on some of the issues raised during the teaching session. For example, my body language, encouraging students to take down notes and making sure students are actively participating in class or lab sessions. Feedback on the review process How useful has it been? Could the process be improved? It has been an eye opener to get someone to review my teaching, and being able to review someone elses teaching. I will suggest, more time be allocated to the exercise, two or more reviewers per session for cross referencing. Reflections on the PREP Process To be completed by the reviewer and sent to the their PGCAP600 tutor this completes this part of the process. Part 4, is the reviewers opportunity to reflect on the process of reviewing somebody elses teaching. What did you learn from conducting a teaching review? Did the process cause you to think about your own teaching differently? Have you developed any new ideas that you plan to investigate? Has the process of review helped you understand your own teaching strengths and preferences? Has it caused you to think differently about your own methods, design, values etc? Has this helped to confirm or challenge any assumptions about what constitutes effective teaching? Did you gain a different perspective on teaching from a student perspective? Yes, I found it really interesting to observe someone from another discipline teaching, for sure, the review process has reshaped my understanding of teaching and the structural approach that need to be followed to meet the learning outcomes. The process has also renewed my confident in teaching and my ability to impact other peoples future. Taking up the challenge to review a colleague from another discipline was nerve racking in the first place. Lornas engagement with students, her ability to easily connect with them and deal with a difficult situation (fire alarm) just added to some of the things that I have learned from the process. Have you generated any ideas about how you might like to develop your teaching? Yes, as mentioned above, being able to watch someone deliver practical lessons and give feedbacks on how well she has done has been very helpful. I come out of this process with the following new ideas, which I think will enhance my teaching: Seek to understand individual students background Be more open and accommodative Being more knowledgeable in my subject area. Making sure a lesson plans is in place in all Lessons. Build a feedbacks process to improve and to know if learning is taking place Application of different learning theories (per needs) Feedback on the review process How useful has it been? Could the process be improved? I think it is definitely useful to observe others teaching, however my role as a lecturer and demonstrator allows me to design, select and deliver learning materials while also observing other academic members of staff teaching on a regular basis, the PREP exercise was not different. However, observing someone from another discipline demonstrate was unique and reminded me that teaching is about following pedagogic processes and I really value the opportunity to discuss the experience afterwards (i.e. as a reviewer and reviewee). I will suggest, more time be allocated to this exercise (PREP), two or more reviewers per session for cross referencing CONCLUSIONS Teaching is a process of inducing learning to other people, how this process is accomplished and how it impacts both learner and the teaching defines effective teaching. By setting appropriate learning outcomes, defining the best methods to deliver and designing and selecting materials to achieve this outcomes can lead to effective teaching in higher education. APPENDIX University of Plymouth CNET226 Basic LAN network design using Cisco Packet Tracer The objective of todays lab is to design and describe a functional network using Cisco packet tracer simulator. Background You are a network engineer. You were given a job by a company who is one of your most valued customers. You have to design a functional LAN for them that contains 2 groups of 5 pcs each connecting to 2 separate switches. Then the switches are connected to a router (R1) and R1 is connected to the ISP router (R2). So basically you have 2 rooms with 5 pc each and both of these rooms have a switch and they are connected to R1. There is a third room and in this one there is a web server running Server 2008 OS. Connect that one with a separate switch and then to the R1. Tasks Using Cisco Packet Tracer (open cisco packet tracer by clicking start Æ’Â   All programsÆ’Â  packet tracer on your PC). Design a functional network you will use to accomplish the customers business needs. Save it (to save: on packet tracer, use file Æ’Â   save as Æ’Â   .pktÆ’Â  location) we will need this later. An example with pc and servers can be found in the diagram below. C:UsersLouis AnegekuhDesktoplab_3.jpg Figure : Sample Network Design Report: Individually write a report of NOT less than 400 words to explain your network diagram using the following guide. Write a list of the devices and cabling you have used in the design. Write a step by step report on what cables you have usd to connect all your devices and the reason(s) behind the selection. Explain the reason (s) behind the devices you have chosen in your design. What ports (interfaces) are you using to connect the devices in your network? Please save your report for a brief discussion on it next week. NOTE: It is important you all attend next week lab, which will be on IPv4 subnetting.

An Essay on The Withered Arm, by Thomas Hardy -- English Literature

An Essay on The Withered Arm, by Thomas Hardy ‘The past is a foreign country. They did things differently there.’ ‘The Go Between’ by L.P. Hartley. Thomas Hardy, a Victorian novelist, based his stories on experience of growing up in rural Dorset. Growing up there, he became familiar with the language, customs, practises and stories of the country folk. These stories draw up on his experiences enabling him to write ‘Wessex Tales’. Among many pieces of work is ‘The Withered Arm’. ‘The Withered Arm’ is a well-crafted short story written in the prose format. The quote above portrays what pre-twentieth century literature should embrace; good literature should be insightable, realistic and significant to all people from any era. In this essay I am going to describe the ways in which Thomas Hardy has made his short story, ‘The Withered Arm’ interesting to the modern reader. ‘The Withered Arm’ is about Rhoda Brook, a dark milkmaid who retaliates on her lovers beautiful new wife, Gertrude, after her lover, Farmer Lodge abandons her and their illigimate son. Hardy has carefully structured all the elements of a short story making ‘The Withered Arm’ interesting and perennial to the modern reader. Farmer Lodge’s denial of the affair with Rhoda and the neglection of his son causes Rhoda’s plotting revenge. Employing the character, Conjuror Trendle, brings the involvement of witchcraft and supernatural powers, giving the plot a paranormal twist. The public execution of The Boy immediately grasps the interest of the reader because we learn that in the Victorian times, committing such a petty crime, there is a massive penalty. We also learn that the lives of the people were so habitual, that they thought of executio... ...led and brings out the best in his stories, yet his language maybe a little hard to understand for a modern reader. I do not find the character in ‘The Withered Arm’ a problem at all because although some of those characters no longer exist, Rhoda, Conjuror Trendle, Hangman, it is still interesting to read about their daily lives and how things were for them; after all good literature should be giving the reader and insight on how things were. Even though the reader may not always agree to the philosophies hidden in his themes, it is captivating to imagine how a Victorian writer can relate to such things. I think that ‘The Withered Arm’ is a fantastic example of pre-twentieth century literature because not only is it interesting, but it gives us an insight on the different lives of the different characters and yet is still interesting to the modern reader.

Diabetes :: essays research papers

What is diabetes? Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases characterized by high levels of blood glucose resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Diabetes can be associated with serious complications and premature death, but persons with diabetes can take measures to reduce the likelihood of such occurrences. 15.7 million people -- 5.9% of the population -- have diabetes. But only 10.3 million people are diagnosed so that leaves 5.4 million people not diagnosed. Studies have found death rates to be twice as high among middle-aged people with diabetes as among middle-aged people without diabetes. Based on death certificate data, diabetes contributed to 193,140 deaths in 1996. Diabetes was the seventh leading cause of death listed on U.S. death certificates in 1996, according to CDC's National Center for Health Statistics. Diabetes is believed to be underreported on death certificates, both as a condition and as a cause of death. 6.3 million. 18.4% of all people 65 years and older have diabetes. 15.6 million. 8.2% of all people 20 years and older have diabetes. 123,000. 0.16% of all people under age 20 have diabetes. Prevalence data for diabetes among Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders are limited. Some groups within this population are at increased risk for diabetes. For example, data collected from 1988 to 1995 suggest that Native Hawaiians are twice as likely to have diagnosed diabetes as white residents of Hawaii. The four types of diabetes are:  · Type 1 diabetes was previously called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or juvenile-onset diabetes. Type 1 diabetes may account for 5% to 10% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes. Risk factors are less well defined for type 1 diabetes than for type 2 diabetes, but autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors are involved in the development of this type of diabetes  · Type 2 diabetes was previously called non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or adult-onset diabetes. Type 2 diabetes may account for about 90% to 95% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes. Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include older age, obesity, family history of diabetes, prior history of gestational diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, physical inactivity, and race/ethnicity. African Americans, Hispanic/Latino Americans, American Indians, and some Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders are at particularly high risk for type 2 diabetes.  · Gestational diabetes develops in 2% to 5% of all pregnancies but disappears when a pregnancy is over.

Brian Clarks Play Whose Life Is It Anyway? Essay -- Brian Clark Whose

Brian Clark's Play "Whose Life Is It Anyway?" The play "Whose Life Is It Anyway" by Brian Clark was made into a stage play and film. The television play was made in 1972 and the stage plays in 1978. In the play,† written by Brian Clarke, the intense argument of committing Voluntary Euthanasia is discussed. The main point of the play, Ken Harrison, once an imaginative, devoted sculptor, is involved in a terrible car crash. Following a long operation, Ken is paralyzed from the neck down; he is informed that he may never be able to move his body ever again. Brian Clark in a similar way uses different characters to show a different view of Ken's possibilities. Dr. Emerson thinks Ken's life is precious and should be kept at any cost, no matter what Ken's wishes are. Dr. Scott also wants Ken to stay alive but values Ken's opinion and thoughts more than Dr. Emerson, she thinks sympathy a lot. Dr. Travers shows a view on Ken's problem, he sees it the same way as Dr. Emerson, and thinks of it as a mental patient wanting to commit suicide, and is happy to back up Dr. Emerson in a court of law, and also sees it as doing a favor for Dr. Emerson, no matter what he finds whilst talking to Ken. In order to make the play more dramatic the debate further Brian Clark uses a dramatic point. The point is that before Ken suffered his accident he was happy and wanted to go on living, but at that time people listened to him and he could have argued a point and people would have listened to it. Now that Ken finds himself in a situation where he doesn't want to go on living, few people want to listen to him: 'Only my brain functions unimpaired but even that is futile because I can't act on any conclusions it comes to.... ...uthanasia is becoming his decision. The lights out at the end of the play represents kens decision to follow euthanasia if the light would have been left on then he may have decided to live. Euthanasia should not be made legal because it will be easily misused unnecessarily. Euthanasia would not only be for people who are "terminally ill", it will become non-voluntary. I also believe that Euthanasia is a rejection of the importance and value of human life. Emotional and psychological pressures could become overpowering for depressed or dependent people. If the choice of euthanasia is considered as good as a decision to receive care, loads of people will feel guilty for not choosing death. Financial considerations, added to the concern about being a burden could serve as powerful forces that would lead a person to "choose" euthanasia or assisted suicide.

Plaza the logistics of Zaragoza Essay

The uncertainty in demand is reflected in the reorder point and safety stock. The more the variability in demand the higher will be the reorder point and the safety stock. A higher deviation in demand would directly affect the safety stock levels required at the warehouses and hence increase the inventory carrying costs. This increase would then affect the overall costs. Using our excel model, If we increase the standard deviation of annual demand from 10,000 to 32,000, the overall costs for Rotterdam become higher than those of Zaragoza. Similarly, varying the service life has an impact on the total cost as it controls the safety stock which in turn controls the inventory holding cost. Hence, as the service life increases to a higher value the cost of option 2 (Zaragoza) will be lesser than option 1. Cost of the product As the cost of the product increases the inventory holding cost increases increasing the total cost. So Zaragoza as has a better cost advantage over Rotterdam option. In our excel model, plugging a product cost of 295 Euros (E 47 and F 47 cells), keeping all other parameters unchanged makes Zaragoza a better cost option. So it is a factor to be considered. Recommendations Based on our above analysis, we recommend the following to the CEO of Zaragoza Logistics Park (Who should they try to sell their idea/option) Zaragoza should target customers with high number of units/TEU They should target customers with high product costs They should target customers whose demand uncertainty is high They should target customers with high annual demand rates They should target customers who have preference for high service rates Plaza is also an educational center for logistics while Rotterdam is a just a logistics park. Zaragoza should try to educate the customer about the supply chain benefits of associating with a world class logistics research center Plaza is a government backed firm – they should use this factor to instill more confidence in the customer over a private firm like Rotterdam option

United Kingdom and British Professionals

Developed country with a population that can afford to buy this soap 5. High Population, it is good for the soap business because they can reach a larger portion of the population 6.Both the upper social strata Brazilian politicians, business elite, middle working class, or lower manual workers, they go out to work, entertainment or leisure time, is bound to go take a shower, dress up. 7. It is Brazil's indigenous welcome etiquette. When the guests arrived, the owner must be the first thing to do is to invite guests burglary bath. The longer guests shower, it means the more respected master.Sometimes, the owner will accompany guests a bath. Both sides while taking a bath conversation seemed everyone intimacy. Although similarities are bound to exist between cultures, the professional conduct of China and the UK do also differ. For example, in China, one often greets the other with a nod or slight bow. Such behaviour is not usually found when interacting with British professionals. In stead, British professionals usually greet each other with a firm hand shake and eye contact – behaviours that are often toned down in China.In a business environment, Chinese professionals usually address each other only by their family name and their professional title, such as Director Chen or Chairman Wu. Because formality is a sign of respect, using someone’s given name is usually avoided; and Chinese professionals tend to clarify how to address their counterparts very early in the meeting. Like China, British professionals also introduce themselves with the same level of formality, and they usually wait to use the first names until the counterpart has used yours or asked to call them by their first name.Where the two countries differ is that British business etiquette is generally more informal and first names are often used right away. With that said, in correspondence, you should begin formally when addressing your correspondent and only switch to an informal m anner when your correspondent does so. When addressing a female professional, if you are uncertain about their marital status, it is best to address her as ‘Ms. ’ – married women also use this title at times.Important to remember that there is no excuse for not using a spell check – and make sure it is set to British English (this is not usually the default in Microsoft Office packages so have a check). When in a professional meeting, the value of punctuality is of as much importance in the UK as it is in China. You should always arrive for a meeting on time or five minutes ahead of schedule. However, if you find yourself delayed, do telephone and provide an estimated time of arrival. In China, it is often assumed that the first person that enters the room is the head of the group or the person of most senior position.By comparison, this isn’t always the case in the UK and you will need to look for clues, for example they are shown to their chair. L ike China, the objectives of a meeting should be indicated ahead of time in the UK, and the participants of a meeting will expect that if a meeting is scheduled for one hour, it will last one hour. The two countries also commonly like to begin the meeting with small talk, although British meetings will then swiftly move to the topics at hand. In both China and the UK, business cards are exchanged between the parties meeting.However, where the two countries differ is that while in China, the business cards are exchanged at the beginning of the meeting in the UK they are exchanged at the end. Not everyone has business cards or carries them, so if someone fails to produce one, don’t take it personally. Remember, when you reserve a place to attend an event, should you find you cannot attend, you should inform the organizer. Not only is this polite for the organizer, but it also may mean that someone else could take your place that otherwise may not have been able to attend if the re are limited places available! United Kingdom and British Professionals Developed country with a population that can afford to buy this soap 5. High Population, it is good for the soap business because they can reach a larger portion of the population 6ï ¼Å½Both the upper social strata Brazilian politicians, business elite, middle working class, or lower manual workers, they go out to work, entertainment or leisure time, is bound to go take a shower, dress upï ¼Å½It is Brazil's indigenous welcome etiquette. When the guests arrived, the owner must be the first thing to do is to invite guests burglary bath. The longer guests shower, it means the more respected master. Sometimes, the owner will accompany guests a bath.Both sides while taking a bath conversation seemed everyone intimacy. Although similarities are bound to exist between cultures, the professional conduct of China and the UK do also differ. For example, in China, one often greets the other with a nod or slight bow. Such behaviour is not usually found when interacting with British professiona ls. Instead, British professionals usually greet each other with a firm hand shake and eye contact – behaviours that are often toned down in China.In a business environment, Chinese professionals usually address each other only by their family name and their professional title, such as Director Chen or Chairman Wu. Because formality is a sign of respect, using someone’s given name is usually avoided; and Chinese professionals tend to clarify how to address their counterparts very early in the meeting.Like China, British professionals also introduce themselves with the same level of formality, and they usually wait to use the first names until the counterpart has used yours or asked to call them by their first name. Where the two countries differ is that British business etiquette is generally more informal and first names are often used right away.With that said, in correspondence, you should begin formally when addressing your correspondent and only switch to an infor mal manner when your correspondent does so. When addressing a female professional, if you are uncertain about their marital status, it is best to address her as ‘Ms.’ – married women also use this title at times. Important to remember that there is no excuse for not using a spell check – and make sure it is set to British English (this is not usually the default in Microsoft Office packages so have a check).When in a professional meeting, the value of punctuality is of as much importance in the UK as it is in China. You should always arrive for a meeting on time or five minutes ahead of schedule. However, if you find yourself delayed, do telephone and provide an estimated time of arrival. In China, it is often assumed that the first person that enters the room is the head of the group or the person of most senior position.By comparison, this isn’t always the case in the UK and you will need to look for clues, for example they are shown to their chai r. Like China, the objectives of a meeting should be indicated ahead of time in the UK, and the participants of a meeting will expect that if a meeting is scheduled for one hour, it will last one hour. The two countries also commonly like to begin the meeting with small talk, although British meetings will then swiftly move to the topics at hand.In both China and the UK, business cards are exchanged between the parties meeting. However, where the two countries differ is that while in China, the business cards are exchanged at the beginning of the meeting in the UK they are exchanged at the end. Not everyone has business cards or carries them, so if someone fails to produce one, don’t take it personally. Remember, when you reserve a place to attend an event, should you find you cannot attend, you should inform the organizer. Not only is this polite for the organizer,  but it also may mean that someone else could take your place that otherwise may not have been able to attend if there are limited places available!

Routing Protocol

1. INTRODUCTION 1. 1 What  is Computer Network? The group  of  computers and devices linked by communication channels allowing users to share information, data, software and hardware with further users is meant to be computer network. Network protocols bound hardware as well as software components of network. Two or more  computers are said  to be  in  a network if and only if they are connected  mutually  and  are  able  to commune. Computers are connected to a network by the use of all  the ports i. e. , parallel ports, modem ports, Ethernet ports, serial ports, USB ports  , fire wire ports and many more in one or more way. But Ethernet port is the most broadly used ports  for networking. Hosts, end stations or workstations are referred while talking  about networks. Anything  attached  to  the network  including hubs, bridges, switches, routers,  access points, firewalls, workstations, servers, mainframes, printers, scanners, copiers, fax machines  and more are included under Host or end stations . Computers are connected in a network for sharing of software and hardware resources, information and data as well as smooth the progress of communication. 1. 2 TCP/IP Layered  architecture Fig: TCP/IP Layered  architecture The following  are  the layers  of  the TCP/IP  architecture: Application Layer: In the  application layer Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) uses protocol  for network communication. Application layer protocols  are most  frequently  linked with client-server  applications. Transport Layer: End-to-end message transfer capability, flow control, error control and fragmentation etc are provided  by the transport layer. The transport layer ensures source to destination delivery of packets safely and reliably. The service through which applications are connected  together via  the use  of ports is provided by transport layer. Network Layer: Packets are logically transmitted over  the entire network in the OSI’s Network layer. Hosts addressing by assigning  them  an IP  address  and packet routing among multiple networks are handled in this layer. This layer is concerned with routing data; end to end message delivery etc. Interface Layer: The data exchange between  the host  and  the network are monitored by the  interface layer. The protocols for  physical transmission  of data is defined by Interface Layer . 1. 3  Autonomous System IP networks  and routers collection under  the control  of one entity representing a common routing policy is called an  Autonomous System. Each  AS  have a unique  AS number  for use  in routing. Each network is uniquely identified on  the  internet by ASN. IANA (Internet  assigned Numbers  authority) assign AS numbers  and supply  to Regional  internet Registries (RIRs)  in blocks. Autonomous System can be divided  into three categories: Multihomed  Autonomous System:   Connections  to more than one  AS is maintained by a Multihomed  AS. Stub  autonomous System:   Connection  to only one other  AS is Stub  autonomous System. Transit  autonomous System:  Connections through itself  to separate networks are provided by Transit  autonomous System. 1. 4 Routing The method  of selecting paths  in  a network via which  to send data is meant to be routing. The process  of finding  a pathway from  a sender  to  a desired destination is also said to be routing. The telephone network,  the  internet  and transport networks, etc perform routing. Network Layer  of either TCP/IP layered model or  the OSI (Open System  interconnect) Reference model mainly carry out routing. The logically  addressed packets are passed from  their source  to destination via  intermediary nodes i. e. orwarding is directed by routing. Routing tasks are performed by routers. Routing and packet forwarding is performed by ordinary  computers available with multiple network cards in a limited manner. Forwarding is directed by the routing process on  the basis  of routing tables where routing record to different network destinations are maintained. In order to have efficient routing, construction of routing table held  in  the routers' memory is most necessary thing. Only one network path are frequently used by routing  algorithms   at  a time, but  the use  of multiple  alternative paths is made possible by multi-path routing techniques. Following are the types  of routing delivery semantics: Unicast: A message is delivered to  a single specified node by router. Fig: Unicasting Broadcast:   A message is delivered  to  all nodes  in  the network by router. Fig: Broadcasting Multicast:   A message is delivered  to assembly  of nodes that have expressed  interest  in getting  the message by router. Fig: Multicasting Anycast: A message is delivered  to  any one out  of  a set  of nodes, typically  the one next  to  the source. Fig:  anycasting 2. TYPES  OF ROUTING Following are the types  of Routing mechanisms. They  are: Static Routing Dynamic Routing 2. Static Routing: The process  by which routes can be manually entered into the routing table with the help of a configuration file which loads automatically as soon as router starts is called static routing. Network  administrator, who configures the routes, can enter these routes as an option. Thus ‘static' rou tes mean the routes that cannot be changed (except  a person changes  them)   after their configuration. The simplest  type  of routing is static routing. In case of change of routing information often or configuration on a huge number of routing devices (router) it doesn’t work fine as it is a manual process. The outages or down connections are not handled properly by static routing because  manually configured route must be reconfigured physically in order  to fix or renovate  any lost connectivity. 2. 2 Dynamic Routing: Network destinations are discovered dynamically  by means of software  applications called Dynamic routing protocols. A routing table is created and managed by router  in Dynamic Routing. Firstly, a router will ‘learn' routes  to  the directly connected entire networks. It will  then learn routes from other routers using the same routing protocol. One or more best routes are selected from the list of routes for each and every network destination by router. ‘Best route'  information are distributed  to other routers running  the same routing protocol by Dynamic protocols, distributing  the  information on what networks it subsist  and can be reached. This provide dynamic routing protocols  the  capability  to  get used to logical network  topology changes, equipment failures or network outages ‘on  the fly'. 2. 3 Types  of Dynamic Routing Distance-Vector Routing Paths are calculated using Bellman Ford Algorithm by  a distance-vector routing protocol. RIPv1  and 2  and IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) are examples  of distance-vector routing protocols. Earlier, distance vector protocols such as RIPv1 show classful behavior but newer distance vector protocols such  as RIPv2  and Enhanced  interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) show signs of classless behavior. Distance-vector routing protocols †¢ Easy  and competent  in small networks †¢ Deprived convergence properties †¢ Facilitate in  the growth  of more complex but more scalable link-state routing protocols  for use  in large networks. Periodic copies  of  a routing table are passed from router  to router by distance vector routing  algorithms. †¢ Logical broadcast is the most commonly used  addressing scheme. Periodic updates are sent by routers running  a distance vector routing protocol even if  there  are no changes  in  the network. †¢ Complete routing table is included under  the periodic rou ting update in a pure distance vector environment. †¢ All known routes can be verified and changes can be made  by getting  a neighbor’s complete routing table based on simplified  information also called as â€Å"routing by rumor†. Fig: Distance Vector Routing Periodic routing updates are received from router A to router B in  the figure. Distance vector metric (such  as hop count) are added by Router B to each route learned from router A,  rising  the distance vector. Its own routing tables  are passed to its neighbor, router C. This process occurs  between directly connected neighbor routers in  all directions. The chief purpose  is  to decide  the top route  to  contain  in  the table when the routing table is updated by  a routing protocol  algorithm. Different routing metric is used to determine  the best route by each distance vector routing protocol. Metric value  is generated for each path through network by the  algorithm. Usually, the path is better if metric is smaller. Single characteristic  of  a path helps in calculation of metrics and combination of several path characteristics helps in calculation of more complex metrics. The most commonly used  metrics used by distance vector routing protocols are: Hop Count: Packet’s number  of passages throughout  the output port  of one router Bandwidth: Link’s data capacity Delay: Time necessary  to shift  a packet from starting place  to destination. Load: work load on  router or link. Reliability: each network link  bit error rate Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU):  the utmost message extent  in octets satisfactory  to  all links on  the path. Link-State Routing Packet-switched networks use link-state routing protocol  for computer communications. OSPF  and  IS-IS are its examples. A  topological database is built by the help of link-state routing that describes extra  precise  inter-network routes. Large networks use link state routing protocols and now used by most of the organization and ISP. Router performs the link-state protocol in  the network. A map  of  the connectivity  of  the network is constructed by every node in the form of graph showing node connection to other node is the basic concept  of link-state routing. The best next hop is calculated by each node  independently for every possible destination  in  the network. The routing table for the node is formed by  the collection  of best next hops. Fig: Link-State Routing To find out  the shortest path from itself  to every other node  in  the network an  algorithm is run by each node  independently over  the map. OSPF, EIGRP and Novell's NLSP (NetWare Link State Protocol) are the examples of link state routing protocol. IPX is only supported by Novell's NLSP. A partial map  of  the network is maintained by each router in this type  of routing protocol. Link state  advertisement (LSA)  is flooded throughout  the network when  a network link changes state (up  to down, or vice versa). The changes are noted and routes are re-computed by all  the routers  accordingly. Greater flexibility  and sophistication are provided by Link State Routing protocols than  the Distance Vector routing protocols. Overall broadcast traffic is reduced  and better decisions are made  about routing by taking characteristics such  as bandwidth, delay, reliability,  and load  into consideration,  instead  of taking  their decisions only on hop count. 3. ROUTING  ALGORITHMS 3. 1 Bellman-Ford  Algorithm: †¢ Also called as Label Correcting  algorithm †¢ Used for negative edge weight †¢ Same as Dijkstra's  algorithm †¢ In order to maintain distance tables, this algorithm is used by router †¢ Exchanging  information with  the neighboring nodes help to update information in the distance table †¢ All nodes  in the network is represented by the number  of data  in  the table The directly  attached neighbors are represented by the columns  of table and all destinations  in  the network are represented by the row. †¢ The number  of hops, latency,  the number  of outgoing packets, etc. are measurements in this algorithm. 3. 2 Dijkstra’s  Algorithm: †¢ Edsger Dijkstra  conceived Dijkstra's  algorithm †¢ Mostly used for routing †¢ Is a graph search algorithm †¢ The single-source shortest path problem  for  a graph is solved by this algorithm with non negative edge path costs †¢ The shortest path tree is produced as a output †¢ Helps in finding shortest route from one router to other A shortest-path spanning tree having route to all possible destination  is built by this algorithm for router †¢ The router using  the  algorithm  is  the source  of its shortest-path spanning tree 4. ROUTING PROTOCOLS Routing protocol describe the way of communication between routers which helps in the selection of routes between any two nodes on a network. Usually, knowledge of immediate neighbors is known by each router. This  information is shared by  a routing protocol to have routers the knowledge  of  the network  topology. Most commonly used Rout ing protocols are as follows: 4. RIP (Routing  information Protocol) †¢ dynamic  inter-network routing protocol †¢ used in private network †¢ routes are automatically discovered †¢ routing tables are built †¢ a Distance-Vector routing protocol †¢ uses Bellman-Ford  algorithm †¢ 15 hops are  allowed with RIP †¢ 180 sec is the hold down time †¢ Full updates are transmitted every 30 sec by each RIP router †¢ Works at network layer †¢ Prevent routing loops †¢ Hop limit †¢ incorrect routing  information are prevented from being propagated †¢ easy configuration †¢ no parameter required Two versions  of RIP are as follows: RIPv1: †¢ classful routing is used subnet information is not carried by periodic routing updates †¢ no support for VLSM (variable length subnet masks) †¢ Same network class have different sized subnet by the use of RIPv1 †¢ No router authentication †¢ Broadcast based and 15 is the maximum hop count A RIPv1 packet  format  is shown below: [pic]Fig: RIP packet  format Command:  determine whether  the packet  is  a request or  a response. A router send  all or part  of its routing table is asked by  the request. Reply  to  a request or regular routing update means the response. Routing table entries are contained in responses. Version number: RIP version used is specified. Potentially  incompatible versions can be signaled by this field. Zero: RFC 1058 RIP doesn’t use this field; it was  added to have backward compatibility provided to pre-standard varieties  of RIP. Address family identifier (AFI):   The  address family used is specified. Address-family identifier is contained in  each entry  to  specify  the category  of  address being particularized. The  AFI  for IP  is 2. Address:   The IP  address is particularized  for  the entry. Metric:  The number of inter-network hops traversed  in  the trip  to  the destination is indicated. 1  and 15  for  an applicable route, or 16  for  an unapproachable route. RIPv2: Developed  in 1994 †¢ Classless  inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is supported †¢ Subnet  information can be carried †¢ Addition of MD5  authentication and Rudimentary plain text  authentication for the security of routing updates. †¢ Routing updates   are multicast to 224. 0. 0. 9 †¢ 15 is the maximum hop count A RIPv2 packet  format is shown below: [pic] Fig: RIPv2 packet  format Command:  determine whether  the packet  is  a request or  a response. A router send  all or part  of its routing table is asked by  the request. Reply  to  a request or regular routing update means the response. Routing table entries are contained in responses. Version number: RIP version used is specified. Unused: Zero is the value set. Address-family identifier (AFI):  The  address family used is specified. Authentication  information is contained in the remainder of the entry if  the  AFI  for  the initial entry  is 0xFFFF in  the message. At present,  simple password is the only  authentication type. Route tag: The methodology is provided  for distinguishing between  internal routes (learned by RIP)  and external routes (learned from other protocols). IP  address: IP  address is particularized  for  the entry. Subnet mask:  The subnet mask is contained  for  the entry. No subnet mask has been particularized  for  the entry if this field  is zero. Next hop: The IP  address  of  the next hop is indicated  to which packets  for  the entry should be  forwarded. Metric:  The number of inter-network hops traversed  in  the trip  to  the destination is indicated. 1  and 15  for  an applicable route, or 16  for  an unapproachable route. 4. 2 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) †¢ A Link-State protocol †¢ used  for routing between routers belonging  to  a single  autonomous system †¢ link-state technology is used †¢   information  about  the direct connections  and links is communicated between the routers Identical database is maintained by each OSPF router for the description of   the  autonomous System’s  topology †¢ Calculation of a routing table by the construction of a shortest- path tree from this database. †¢ Routes are quickly recalculated in the face of topological changes †¢ equal-cost multi-path are supported †¢ Authentication of all OSPF routing protocol exchanges †¢ Designed for TCP/IP environment †¢ routing updates authentication †¢ IP multicast are utilized in sending/receiving  the updates †¢ routes IP packets based exclusively on  the target IP  address originate  in  the IP packet header Grouping of sets of networks †¢ IP subnets are flexibly configured †¢ Destination  and mask is available to the route distributed by OSPF The following figure shows  the packet  format used by OSPF: [pic]Fig: OSPF packet  format Version number:  the OSPF version used is specified. Type:  the OSPF packet type is identified  as one  of  the following: Hello: neighbor relationships are established and maintained. Database description:  the contents  of  the  topological database are described. Link-state request: pieces  of  the  topological database are request ed from neighbor routers. Link-state update:  a link-state request packet is responded. Link-state  acknowledgment:   link-state update packets are acknowledged. Packet length:  the packet length,  the OSPF header is specified. Router ID:   the source  of  the packet is identified. Area ID:   The  area of packet is identified. All OSPF packets  are  linked with  a single  area. Checksum:  the complete packet contents are checked  for  any harm suffered  in travel. Authentication type:  the  authentication type is contained. Authentication of  all OSPF protocol exchanges. Configuration of the  authentication type   on per-area basis. Authentication:   authentication  information is contained. Data: encapsulated upper-layer  information is contained. 5. WORKING 5. 1 Distance Vector Routing: The following methods show  the overall working  of  the Distance-Vector Routing: . There is no predefined route i. e. entire route for a particular destination is not known to any router. The port to send out a unicast packet is known by each router on the basis of destination address. Progressively the route is made and there is the formation of the route by the contribution of each router when it receives the packet. The optimal tree is not predefined in DVRP actually. No routers have knowledge for making an optimal tree. Slowly and gradually the tree is made. The tree is formed as soon as a router receives a packet; it is forwarded by router through some of the ports, on the basis of source address. Other down-stream routers make the rest of the tree. The formation of the loops must be prevented by this protocol. Duplications are also prevented in order to make the entire network receive only one copy. In addition to this, the shortest path from source to the destination is the path travelled by a copy. Inconsistencies occurring with Distance-Vector Routing: Incorrect routing entries are caused by slow  inter-network convergence which may bring inconsistencies maintaining routing information. .  The following example describes how  inconsistencies occur  in Distance-Vector routing: The entire figure describes the inconsistencies occurring with Distance-Vector Routing. Defining  a maximum  to prevent count  to  infinity: . With this  approach,  the routing table update loop is permitted by routing protocol until  the metric exceeds its maximum  allowed value. Fig: Defining  a maximum  to prevent count  to  infinity 6 hops are defined as the maximum  allowed value. When  the metric value exceeds 16 hops, we cannot reach network 10. 4. 0. 0 Routing Loops  in Distance-Vector Routing: A routing loop is said to be occurred if two or more routers have  false routing  information  representing that  a applicable path  to  an unapproachable d estination exists via other routers. Fig: Routing Loop Solutions  to eliminate routing loops Split horizon:  The information is not sent in the direction from where original information comes. The split horizon function is illustrated by the following figure Fig: Split Horizon Route Poisoning:  Routing loops are eliminated. The following figure provides  an example  of Route Poisoning: Fig: Route Poisoning In  addition  to split horizon, route poisoning  and holddown timers, poison reverse, holddown timers  and triggered updates  are other methods  to eliminate routing loops. 5. 2 Link-State Routing: The following methods show  the overall working  of Link-State Routing. Gathering of the neighbor  information continuously. Router answering to this protocol are broadcasted the list of neighbor  information, process known  as flooding. Soon, this  information is distributed to all routers on  the network. Flooding of the neighbor  information in case  of  a (routing-significant) change  in  the network. The best path can be calculated to any host on any destination network as everything  about  the network is known by every router. 6. ADVANTAGES  AND DISADVANTAGES Distance-Vector Routing Advantages  of Distance-Vector Routing: †¢ simple  and flat network †¢ No special hierarchical design is required. †¢ Implementation of hub-and-spoke networks †¢ No concern for worst-case convergence times  in  a network †¢ less memory  and processing power usage Disadvantages  of Distance-Vector Routing: †¢ Incorrect routing entries create inconsistencies in maintaining  the routing  information †¢ Rise of a condition count  to  infinity †¢ Occurrence of a routing loop †¢ Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) or super netting is not supported †¢ multi-vendor routing environment is not supported Link-State Routing Advantages  of Link-State Routing: †¢ Paths are chosen via network by the use of cost metrics †¢ changes  in  the network  topology are reported to  all routers  in  the network quickly †¢   fast convergence times †¢ No occurrence of routing loops routing decisions are based on the most recent set  of  information †¢ Link-State protocols use cost metrics  to choose paths though  the network. The cost metric reflects  the capacity  of  the links on those paths. Disadvantages  of Link-State Routing: †¢ Topology database,  an  adjacency database,  and  a  forwarding database is required. †¢ a significant  amount  of memory  is required in large or complex networks †¢ significant  amount  of CPU power usage †¢ need of a strict hierarchical network design to reduce significant  amount  of CPU power usage †¢ network capability or performance is low to transport data . APPLICATION  AREAS Distance-Vector Routing: †¢ used in mobile, wireless and hoc networks (MANETs) †¢ used for mobile  ad hoc routing (Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing) . Link-State Routing: †¢ used  in larger, more complicated networks †¢ Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR) designed for mobile, wireless and hoc networks 8. COMPARING DISTANCE-VECTOR  AND LINK-STATE ROUTING STRATEGIES †¢ Mostly, best path is determined by Distance Vector protocols, while bandwidth, delay, reliability  and load are considered to make routing decision by Link-State protocols Distance Vector protocols are simple and efficient where as Link-State protocols are flexible and sophisticated †¢ Routing  information Protocol (RIP v1  and v2)  and  interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP developed by Cisco) are Distance Vector protocols where as OSPF, EIGRP, Novell's NLSP (NetWare Link State Protocol) are Link-State protocols †¢ Notion of a distance is not required in Distance Vector routing where as Link-State routing is based on minimizing some notion of distance †¢ Uniform policies are not required at all routers in Distance Vector routing but uniform policy is required in Link-State routing Router have little knowledge about network topology in Distance Vector routing where as routing domain has excessive knowledge about topology information in Link-State routing 9. CONCLUSION Introduction, working, use, advantages and disadvantages of Distance-Vector  and Link-State routing  are explained  in this project. Bellman  ford  and Dijkstr a’s  algorithm are also discussed. This project describes the popularity of Distance-Vector  and Link-State routing  because of their complex, sophisticated, flexible features in recent computer networking field..